Combined Reporting & Alaska R&D Credit
Combined reporting aggregates the income of all members of a unitary business group into a single tax return, effectively treating them as one entity. The Alaska R&D credit is then applied against this consolidated liability, allowing credits generated by one member to offset the tax owed by the entire group.
Unitary Business Principle
Alaska requires corporations that are part of a unitary business to file a combined report. This prevents shifting profits to low-tax jurisdictions.
R&D Credit Mechanics
Based on Internal Revenue Code § 41. It incentivizes innovation within the state by offering credits for qualified research expenses (QREs).
The Intersection
In a combined return, a loss-making subsidiary's R&D credits aren't "trapped"; they reduce the profitable parent's Alaska tax bill.
Combined Reporting and the Alaska R&D Tax Credit: A Comprehensive Guide for Unitary Businesses
Combined Reporting is a state tax accounting method requiring multi-state corporations that are functionally integrated (unitary) to aggregate their income and factors across all related entities.1 This mandatory approach ensures that an accurate portion of the unitary business’s total profit is taxed by Alaska, regardless of the internal legal structure of the subsidiaries.
I. The Mechanism of Combined Reporting: Definition and Necessity
A. Combined Reporting: The Simple Definition and Purpose
Combined Reporting (CR) is an accounting method that requires legally separate, yet functionally integrated (unitary), corporations to calculate state tax liability based on their aggregated income and factors.1 This approach aims to accurately reflect the portion of the entire unitary business profit attributable to the state, thereby preventing income shifting between related entities.2
B. Detailed Analysis: The Unitary Business Principle (UBP)
The foundation of Combined Reporting rests squarely on the unitary business principle (UBP), which mandates that two or more corporations must be treated as a single economic unit for state tax calculation if they are related by common ownership and are sufficiently interdependent, integrated, or interrelated through their activities.1
1. Defining Unity under Alaska Law
Alaska’s administrative code provides guidelines for determining unity. A business is unitary if the entities involved are owned, centrally managed, or controlled, directly or indirectly, under one common direction. This control can be formal or informal.3 Critically, a business is deemed unitary if the operation of the portion of the business done within the state is “dependent upon or contributes to the operation of the business outside the state”.3 This determination is fact-specific and made on a case-by-case basis using established statutes, regulations, and judicial precedent.3
2. Necessity: Preventing Tax Distortion
Combined Reporting is a necessary mechanism to achieve fair apportionment and prevent income manipulation, a major objective shared by states that employ the method.2 Without CR, corporations using “separate accounting” could utilize techniques—such as establishing Passive Investment Companies (PICs) or manipulating intercompany pricing—to shift taxable income from taxing jurisdictions like Alaska to low-tax or no-tax affiliates elsewhere.2
The mandatory combined reporting status directly dictates the complexity and compliance burden for the subsequent R&D credit calculation. Because Alaska mandates CR for multi-state unitary groups 5, the entire group’s factors are pooled. Consequently, the R&D credit calculation, which is based on the apportionment factor, transforms from a simple entity-level calculation into a complex, multi-entity compliance exercise requiring the elimination of internal transactions and the accurate aggregation of group-wide factors.4
II. Alaska’s Mandatory Unitary Regime and Scope
Alaska imposes a mandatory combined reporting requirement, specifically outlining which corporations must be included in the unitary group’s computation, even if they lack direct Alaska nexus.
A. Statutory Authority: AS 43.20.031(i)
Alaska Statute (AS) 43.20.031(i) mandates that any taxpayer that is a member of a group of unitary corporations or entities, which collectively has income taxable both inside and outside the state, “shall determine its income from sources in this state by use of the combined method of accounting”.5
B. Unitary Group Composition and Water’s Edge Rules (AS 43.20.145)
Alaska principally operates under a “water’s edge” combined reporting method (AS 43.20.145).7 This method focuses primarily on U.S. activity, but includes specific exceptions requiring the inclusion of certain foreign affiliates, ensuring a broad tax base.
1. Inclusion of Domestic Affiliates
A corporation must be included in the Alaska combined return if it is part of the unitary business and is eligible to be included in a federal consolidated return (under 26 U.S.C. 1501-1505) and its property, payroll, and sales factors in the United States average 20 percent or more.7 Additionally, domestic international sales corporations (DISCs) are subject to mandatory inclusion.7
2. Mandatory Inclusion of Tax Haven Corporations
Alaska maintains a rigorous anti-avoidance rule that requires the inclusion of certain foreign affiliates.8 Despite utilizing a water’s edge approach, AS 43.20.145 mandates the inclusion of a corporation incorporated in, or doing business in, a country that imposes an income tax rate lower than $90\%$ of the U.S. income tax rate on the corporation’s U.S. income tax base.7 Inclusion is triggered if two specific conditions are met:
- $50\%$ or more of the sales, purchases, or payments of income or expenses are made directly or indirectly to one or more members of the water’s edge group; and
- The corporation does not conduct significant economic activity.7
The mandatory inclusion of these tax haven corporations poses a crucial compliance challenge. Failure to correctly identify and include a qualifying tax haven subsidiary means the unitary denominator used for apportionment will be understated. This understatement artificially inflates the Alaska apportionment factor, which in turn leads to an overstated Alaska R&D tax credit claim, creating substantial audit risk. Therefore, maintaining the integrity of the apportionment factor requires strict compliance with these specific foreign inclusion rules.
3. Oil and Gas Exemption
It is important to note that AS 43.20.145 does not apply to taxpayers subject to AS 43.20.144, specifically those engaged in the production of oil or gas or the transportation of oil or gas by regulated pipeline in the state.7 This exception demonstrates that Alaska handles these core resource sectors under distinct, specialized taxing regimes, while the combined reporting rules are comprehensively applied to the state’s general corporate tax base.9
III. Alaska R&D Tax Credit (AS 43.20.021): Structure and Foundation
The Alaska R&D Tax Credit is a non-refundable, federal-based credit, meaning its calculation is entirely dependent on the successful generation and measurement of the federal credit under the Internal Revenue Code (IRC).
A. The Federal Gateway: Compliance with IRC § 41
To claim the Alaska credit, a taxpayer must first be eligible for the federal R&D tax credit under IRC $\S 41$.6 Alaska adopts the federal definition for qualified research expenses (QREs), which include wages, supplies, and $65\%$ of contract research expenses.11
1. Qualified Research Activities
Eligibility requires that the underlying research activities satisfy the federal Four-Part Test: the activity must be for a permitted purpose, involve the elimination of uncertainty, involve a process of experimentation, and be technological in nature.10 Activities generating the QREs must be conducted within the United States but are not required to take place within Alaska itself.11
2. Unitary Federal Calculation
For a combined group, the calculation of the federal credit is performed based on the aggregated QREs, gross receipts, and base period data for the entire controlled group.14 This consolidated perspective ensures that QREs are not double-counted or excluded based on internal organizational structures.4 The complexity in determining the federal credit base is compounded when the unitary group’s membership has shifted in the base period (the preceding four years). The group must reconstruct the historical gross receipts and QREs for all entities that were part of the combined group during that lookback period to determine the accurate Fixed-Base Percentage used in the current year’s federal calculation, which is the ultimate starting point for the Alaska credit.
B. Alaska’s Specific Calculation: The 18% Non-Refundable Offset
The Alaska R&D credit is not calculated independently based on Alaska QREs; instead, it is limited to $18\%$ of the federal credit apportioned to Alaska under AS 43.20.021.6
The federal basis and national scope of QRE eligibility provide a clear strategic advantage for multi-state unitary filers. Since the location of the research activities is decoupled from the location of the benefit, a unitary group may centralize its R&D functions in a highly innovative region outside of Alaska and still generate a credit that can be applied against its Alaska corporate tax liability.6
The credit provides a dollar-for-dollar offset against Alaska tax liabilities.11 It is non-refundable and may not be used against the Alaska Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) or other taxes.16 Unused portions of the credit may be carried back one year and forward for up to 20 years, aligning with the federal carryover structure.6
IV. Compliance: Apportioning the Unitary R&D Credit to Alaska
The critical step for a combined reporting group is establishing the connection between the unitary, nationwide federal credit and the specific, Alaska-eligible credit amount using the mandatory state apportionment factor.
A. The Core Principle: Credit Apportionment for Multi-State Taxpayers
Any taxpayer taxable both inside and outside Alaska must calculate the credit by apportioning the federal credits generated.16 This ensures the credit reflects the portion of the unitary business activity conducted within the state.
B. Calculating the Apportionment Factor for the Combined Group
The R&D credit is apportioned using the same three-factor formula (Property, Payroll, and Sales) utilized for determining the unitary group’s corporate income tax liability.6
In the context of combined reporting, the P/P/S factors for all members of the unitary group are aggregated to calculate the overall “Everywhere” denominator.6 The resulting ratio of Alaska factors over Everywhere factors is then applied to the total federal credit generated by the unitary group.
The unitary apportionment leverage can significantly influence the tax benefit. If Alaska utilizes a sales-weighted apportionment formula, a unitary group with high sales receipts in Alaska relative to its physical footprint (property and payroll) can capture a larger percentage of its nationally generated R&D credit, maximizing the state benefit even if the QREs were incurred entirely out-of-state.6
C. The Combined Reporting Calculation Pathway
The calculation adheres to a mandatory, three-step methodology 6:
- Compute Total Federal Credit: Determine the unitary group’s total federal R&D credit under IRC $\S 41$.
- Apportion the Federal Credit: Multiply the Total Federal Credit by the Alaska Corporate Income Tax Apportionment Factor (unitary P/P/S ratio) to determine the Apportioned Federal Credit.
- Apply the State Rate: Multiply the Apportioned Federal Credit by the Alaska statutory rate of $18\%$ to arrive at the final Alaska R&D Credit amount.6
By relying exclusively on the federal QRE base, Alaska significantly mitigates internal audit challenges related to complex intercompany R&D charges. The focus shifts entirely to ensuring the unitary apportionment factor is correctly calculated and applied.6
V. Administrative Implementation and DOR Guidance
Claiming the Alaska R&D tax credit requires specific forms and strict adherence to the Alaska Department of Revenue (DOR) regulatory framework for federal-based credits, primarily Alaska Form 6390.
A. Claiming the Credit: Alaska Form 6390 – Alaska Federal-Based Credits
To claim the credit, a company must file Alaska Form 6390—Alaska Federal-Based Credits—attached to its state corporate income tax return (Form 6000, 6100, or 6150).6 Federal Forms 3800 and 6765 must also be included to substantiate the underlying federal credit.6
Form 6390 is mandated to “order and limit federal-based credits, on an as-if Alaska basis”.17 The form explicitly integrates the apportionment factor (Line 6) and applies the statutory $18\%$ rate to the result (Line 8) to calculate the allowable credit.18
The form also governs credit ordering and application. The credit is non-refundable and must be applied against the Alaska regular tax after other Alaska incentive credits have been utilized (Form 6390, Line 12c).18 The credit may not be used against the Alaska Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT).16 The required sequencing of credits determines the remaining tax liability against which the R&D credit can be applied. Incorrect sequencing could potentially result in an unnecessary carryforward amount rather than immediate utilization of the credit.
B. Utilizing Carrybacks and Carryforwards in Subsequent Combined Reports
The R&D credit offers a substantial carryover period: unused portions may be carried back one year and forward for up to 20 years, following the rules of 26 U.S. Code $\S 39$.6
This lengthy carryforward is crucial for unitary groups with volatile incomes, ensuring that the benefit of the credit generated in a low-income year can offset tax liabilities in future, more profitable years. However, this flexibility demands robust tracking requirements.19 The combined group must meticulously track the vintage of each carryforward credit to comply with utilization rules (typically FIFO). This administrative task is particularly complex if the unitary group’s entity structure or composition shifts from year to year, requiring precise tracking across potentially many related entities over a two-decade horizon.16
VI. Case Study: Detailed Calculation Example for a Combined Unitary Group
This case study illustrates the path from aggregated unitary QREs to the final, offsettable Alaska credit for a multi-state technology conglomerate (Alpha Group) filing a combined report.
A. Scenario Setup: Multi-State Technology Conglomerate (Alpha Group)
Alpha Group is a unitary business comprising three U.S. corporations. R&D activities are centralized in California (Alpha HQ), but the group maintains significant sales and manufacturing presence in Alaska (Beta Manufacturing and Gamma Software).
| Entity | Location | Current Year QREs | Everywhere P/P/S Factor Denominator | Alaska P/P/S Factor Numerator |
| Alpha HQ (R&D) | California | $\$1,500,000$ | $\$50,000,000$ | $\$0$ |
| Beta Mfg | U.S. / Alaska | $\$500,000$ | $\$30,000,000$ | $\$2,000,000$ |
| Gamma Software | U.S. / Alaska | $\$0$ | $\$20,000,000$ | $\$3,000,000$ |
| Unitary Aggregated Total | U.S. Only | $\$2,000,000$ | $\$100,000,000$ | $\$5,000,000$ |
B. Step-by-Step Calculation of the Alaska R&D Credit
The calculation integrates the unitary perspective into the three mandatory steps required by the Alaska DOR.
Step 1: Calculate Total Federal R&D Credit (IRC § 41 Basis)
The total QREs incurred by the unitary group are aggregated ($2,000,000$). Assuming the group successfully navigates the federal IRC $\S 41$ calculation (e.g., using the Alternative Simplified Credit method), the resulting federal credit is determined.
$$\text{Total Federal IRC } \S 41 \text{ Credit} = \$200,000$$
Step 2: Apportion the Federal Credit to Alaska
The unitary apportionment factor is calculated by aggregating the property, payroll, and sales factors of all included unitary members.
$$\text{Alaska Apportionment Factor} = \frac{\text{Alaska P/P/S}}{\text{Everywhere P/P/S}} = \frac{\$5,000,000}{\$100,000,000} = 0.05 \text{ or } 5.0\%$$
The federal credit is then apportioned using this unitary factor.
$$\text{Apportioned Federal Credit} = \$200,000 \times 0.05 = \$10,000$$
Step 3: Apply the Alaska Statutory Rate (18%)
The final Alaska credit is derived by applying the statutory $18\%$ rate to the apportioned amount.
$$\text{Current Year Alaska R\&D Tax Credit} = \$10,000 \times 0.18 = \$1,800$$
C. Tax Liability Offset and Carryforward Determination
Assume the Alpha Group’s apportioned unitary income results in an Alaska Corporate Income Tax Liability of $\$5,000$ for the current year.
The group utilizes the calculated Alaska R&D Credit of $\$1,800$. Since the credit amount is less than the tax liability, the entire credit is utilized immediately.
- Credit Utilized: $\$1,800$
- Remaining Tax Liability: $\$5,000 – \$1,800 = \$3,200$.
- Carryforward: $\$0$
Table Title: Alpha Group Unitary R&D Credit Calculation (20XX)
| Calculation Metric | Formula / Source | Value | Unitary Principle Applied |
| 1. Total Unitary QREs | Aggregated U.S. expenses (IRC $\S 41$) | $\$2,000,000$ | Aggregated across all unitary affiliates. |
| 2. Total Federal IRC $\S 41$ Credit | Calculated on aggregated QREs (Assumed) | $\$200,000$ | Derived from the single economic unit’s activity. |
| 3. Unitary Apportionment Factor | Alaska P/P/S / Everywhere P/P/S | $5.0\%$ | Factors of all unitary members pooled for the denominator. |
| 4. Apportioned Federal Credit (Form 6390 Input) | $\$200,000 \times 5.0\%$ | $\$10,000$ | Isolates the credit base attributable to Alaska operations. |
| 5. Alaska R&D Credit (Form 6390 Output) | $\$10,000 \times 18\%$ | $\$1,800$ | State statutory rate applied to the apportioned base.6 |
| 6. Alaska Corporate Tax Liability | Based on Apportioned Unitary Income (Assumed) | $\$5,000$ | The current year offset limit. |
| 7. Credit Utilized | Lesser of Line 5 or Line 6 | $\$1,800$ | Dollar-for-dollar reduction of tax due.11 |
| 8. Credit Carryforward (20 Years) | Line 5 – Line 7 | $\$0$ | Unused balance may be carried forward.6 |
VII. Conclusion and Strategic Tax Planning Considerations
The integration of mandatory Combined Reporting with the Alaska R&D tax credit framework ensures that the incentive is precisely calibrated to the economic activity a unitary business conducts within the state, leveraging national QRE generation against Alaska tax liability.
The most critical challenge for multi-state unitary filers is the administrative burden of marrying the federal QRE requirements (IRC $\S 41$) with the strict state apportionment mandates (AS 43.20.021 and AS 43.20.145). The ultimate tax benefit is realized only through impeccable compliance in three distinct areas:
- Federal Documentation: Rigorous tracking and substantiation of QREs for the entire unitary group, including reconstruction of historical data for base period calculations, must be completed first.
- Unitary Apportionment Integrity: Strict adherence to Alaska’s definition of a unitary group and mandatory inclusion rules (especially concerning foreign tax haven affiliates) is necessary to ensure the apportionment factor’s denominator is accurate and defensible under audit.
- Administrative Filing: The proper calculation, ordering, and application of the non-refundable credit through Alaska Form 6390 must be executed, coupled with robust systems to manage the 20-year carryforward period.
For unitary groups, the ability to generate the credit base (QREs) anywhere in the U.S. while utilizing the credit to offset Alaska tax based on sales and physical presence remains a powerful tool for optimizing state tax liabilities, provided the underlying complexities of combined reporting are navigated effectively. 6
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What is the R&D Tax Credit?
The Research & Experimentation Tax Credit (or R&D Tax Credit), is a general business tax credit under Internal Revenue Code section 41 for companies that incur research and development (R&D) costs in the United States. The credits are a tax incentive for performing qualified research in the United States, resulting in a credit to a tax return. For the first three years of R&D claims, 6% of the total qualified research expenses (QRE) form the gross credit. In the 4th year of claims and beyond, a base amount is calculated, and an adjusted expense line is multiplied times 14%. Click here to learn more.
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