The Geographic and Historical Development of the Kent Valley Industrial Ecosystem

To understand the specific application of modern research and development (R&D) tax legislation within Kent, Washington, it is imperative to first analyze the geographical, geological, and historical forces that cultivated its current industrial landscape. The types of scientific experimentation and engineering development occurring in the region today are direct outgrowths of a century-long economic evolution.

Geological Foundations and the Agricultural Era

The topography of the Kent Valley was fundamentally shaped thousands of years ago by the Osceola Mudflow, a massive volcanic debris avalanche originating from Mount Rainier. This geological event deposited approximately 2,000 feet of highly mineralized, nutrient-dense topsoil into the White River Valley, creating a fertile floodplain that would define the region’s early economic history. Indigenous Coast Salish communities, including the ancestors of the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, initially utilized this rich environment as vital gathering and hunting grounds.

Following white settlement in the 1850s, the region rapidly transitioned into an agrarian powerhouse. By the 1870s, Kent had become the epicenter of a massive hops boom, internationally recognized as “The Hop Capital of the World”. When a devastating aphid outbreak decimated the hop crops in the 1890s, the local economy demonstrated its first major pivot, transitioning to dairy farming, vegetable cultivation, and berry production. This agricultural density necessitated local processing infrastructure, leading to the establishment of the Pacific Coast Condensed Milk Company (which later became the Carnation Company) in Kent in 1899. This early foray into food processing laid the permanent groundwork for the region’s current leadership in advanced food science and packaging R&D.

Flood Control and the Industrial Pivot

Despite its agricultural productivity, the valley’s flat, highly desirable land was plagued by severe, chronic flooding from the White and Green Rivers. In 1906, a massive logjam permanently diverted the White River into the Puyallup River, leaving the Green River as the primary waterway flowing through Kent. However, flooding remained a catastrophic impediment to permanent industrial construction.

The inflection point for Kent’s modern industrialization occurred in the 1960s with the construction of the Howard A. Hanson Dam. By successfully regulating the Green River, the dam permanently mitigated the flood risk, abruptly opening thousands of acres of flat, valley-floor real estate for commercial and industrial development.

The Aerospace Catalyst and the Modern Logistics Hub

In 1965, almost immediately following the federal flood control efforts, The Boeing Company capitalized on the newly available land by constructing the massive Boeing Aerospace Center in Kent. This facility rapidly evolved into a nexus of American innovation. In 1970, the Apollo Lunar Rover was manufactured in Kent, firmly establishing the city’s legacy in space exploration. Furthermore, Boeing utilized the Kent Space Center to manufacture advanced defense systems, including air-launched cruise missiles and critical components for the AWACS radar plane program.

Boeing’s sheer scale initiated a massive supply chain clustering effect. Sub-tier manufacturers specializing in advanced metallurgy, composite fabrication, and precision machine tooling relocated to Kent to integrate seamlessly into Boeing’s procurement networks. Concurrently, the city’s geographical position was recognized as an unparalleled logistical asset. Situated equidistant between the deep-water Port of Seattle and the Port of Tacoma—collectively functioning as the Northwest Seaport Alliance—and bisected by major continental freight rail lines, Kent became a critical node in global supply chains.

Today, the Kent Valley features 136 million square feet of commercial and industrial space, supporting over 232,000 jobs across the aerospace, space technology, advanced manufacturing, and logistics sectors. The combined direct economic impact of the manufacturing, warehousing, and transportation sectors in the valley contributes $45.4 billion to the statewide economy. It is within this densely clustered, highly specialized industrial ecosystem that corporations engage in the intensive R&D activities necessary to claim federal and state tax incentives.

The United States Federal R&D Tax Credit Legal Framework

The United States federal government utilizes the tax code to incentivize domestic businesses to bear the financial risks associated with technological innovation. The primary mechanism for this incentive is the Research and Development (R&D) Tax Credit under Internal Revenue Code (IRC) Section 41, acting in tandem with the deduction of Research and Experimental (R&E) expenditures under IRC Section 174A. Navigating this framework requires an exhaustive understanding of statutory definitions, administrative guidance, and binding federal case law.

IRC Section 41: The Statutory Four-Part Test

To qualify for the federal R&D tax credit, a taxpayer must incur Qualified Research Expenses (QREs) while engaging in “qualified research.” The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) mandates that every specific business component—statutorily defined as a product, process, computer software, technique, formula, or invention—must independently satisfy a rigorous Four-Part Test established under IRC § 41(d).

Qualified Research Expenses (QREs)

If a project satisfies the Four-Part Test, the taxpayer may aggregate the associated costs into Qualified Research Expenses (QREs). Under Section 41(b)(1), QREs are strictly limited to the sum of in-house research expenses and contract research expenses.

In-House Research Expenses:

• Wages: Taxable wages (typically Box 1 of IRS Form W-2) paid to employees for performing, directly supervising, or directly supporting qualified research. The IRS Audit Techniques Guide clarifies that “direct support” includes ancillary activities essential to the research, such as a machinist fabricating a prototype part or a laboratory technician cleaning complex testing equipment. First-line management is included, but higher-level executives removed from the daily scientific process are generally excluded.
• Supplies: Non-depreciable, tangible property used directly in the conduct of qualified research. This strictly excludes land, improvements to land, and any property subject to an allowance for depreciation. General and administrative (G&A) overhead costs cannot be allocated to self-constructed supplies.

Contract Research Expenses: Payments made to third-party vendors, engineering firms, or testing laboratories performing research on behalf of the taxpayer are eligible, but are statutorily reduced. Only 65% of the qualifying expense may be claimed as a QRE. Furthermore, the taxpayer must bear the economic risk of the research’s failure and must retain substantial rights to the intellectual property generated.

Recent Legislative Overhauls: The OBBBA and IRC Section 174A

The federal tax landscape regarding R&D experienced a seismic shift with the passage of the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (OBBBA) in 2025 (P.L. 119-21). To understand the magnitude of this legislation, one must examine the preceding law. Under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) of 2017, taxpayers were required, for tax years beginning after December 31, 2021, to capitalize all domestic R&E expenditures and amortize them over a five-year period (and foreign R&E over 15 years). This capitalization requirement severely damaged corporate cash flow and disincentivized high-risk manufacturing innovation.

The OBBBA rectified this by establishing IRC Section 174A, permanently restoring the ability of taxpayers to immediately deduct domestic R&E expenditures in the specific tax year they are paid or incurred. Foreign R&E expenditures must still be capitalized. This restoration acts synergistically with the Section 41 credit. Manufacturers in Kent can now immediately expense the massive costs of integrating robotics or engineering new tooling, while simultaneously claiming a dollar-for-dollar tax credit on a portion of those exact same expenditures.

However, alongside these benefits, the IRS has significantly increased compliance burdens. The finalized instructions for Form 6765 (Credit for Increasing Research Activities) dictate that for the processing year 2026, most filers are mandated to complete Section G. This new section requires taxpayers to report their distinct business components in descending order of cost until they account for 80% of total QREs (or cap at 50 components). This regulatory shift demands a profound increase in contemporaneous, project-level documentation from engineering and financial departments.

Landmark IRS Guidance and Federal Tax Court Jurisprudence

The practical application of Section 41 is heavily dictated by established United States Tax Court precedent. Businesses operating in Kent must structure their R&D operations and financial accounting methodologies with these landmark decisions in mind.

• Wages and Stock Options (Apple Computer, Inc. v. Commissioner & Sun Microsystems v. Commissioner): These foundational cases established that the “spread” realized upon the exercise of non-statutory stock options constitutes taxable wages under Section 3401(a) and can therefore be included as QREs. Crucially, the qualification of these wages is based on the nature of the employee’s services at the time the option was granted, not when it was exercised. For technology and aerospace firms in Kent that heavily utilize equity compensation, this precedent allows for massive QRE inclusions when early-stage engineers finally exercise long-held options.
• The Funding Exception (Smith v. Commissioner): In this case, the IRS attempted to disallow credits claimed by an architectural and engineering firm, arguing that the client contractually “funded” the research. Research is deemed funded—and therefore ineligible for the Section 41 credit—if the taxpayer’s payment from the client is not contingent on the success of the research, or if the taxpayer does not retain substantial rights to the research. Contract manufacturers and engineering consultants in Kent must carefully draft their master service agreements (MSAs) to explicitly absorb the financial risk of development failure to preserve their credit eligibility.
• Documentation of Uncertainty (Phoenix Design Group, Inc. v. Commissioner, 2024): In a recent and highly restrictive ruling, the Tax Court ruled against an engineering firm because it failed to identify specific, quantifiable uncertainties before commencing its research. The IRS now actively rejects claims where taxpayers only retroactively identify general design challenges. Firms must establish clear, contemporaneous documentation of the exact scientific or technological questions their research seeks to answer at the project’s inception.

Washington State Tax Incentives and Regional B&O Frameworks

Unlike the majority of US jurisdictions, Washington State does not levy a traditional corporate income tax based on net profit; instead, it imposes a Business and Occupation (B&O) tax levied on the gross receipts of business activities conducted within the state. To maintain a globally competitive industrial base despite this aggressive taxation model, the Washington State Department of Revenue (DOR) and local municipalities offer a labyrinthine system of tax deferrals, exemptions, credits, and preferential rates targeted specifically at manufacturing and R&D operations.

The M&E Sales and Use Tax Exemption and the Terrapower Doctrine

One of the most lucrative incentives available to Kent manufacturers is the Manufacturers’ Sales and Use Tax Exemption for Machinery and Equipment (commonly known as the M&E exemption). This provision grants a retail sales and use tax exemption for machinery and equipment used directly in a manufacturing operation, a testing operation, or an R&D operation by a manufacturer.

To qualify, the property must meet the statutory definition of “machinery and equipment,” which encompasses physical devices, industrial fixtures, support facilities, and the computer software that directs or controls them. Furthermore, the equipment must have a useful life exceeding one year and must satisfy the “majority use threshold,” meaning it is utilized more than 50% of the time directly on an eligible manufacturing or testing activity.

Historically, the DOR strictly interpreted this statute, denying the exemption to businesses that utilized machinery to manufacture items exclusively for internal testing, insisting the taxpayer must manufacture tangible personal property (TPP) for sale. This interpretation was shattered by the landmark July 2022 decision by the Washington State Board of Tax Appeals in Terrapower, LLC v. Department of Revenue (BTA Docket 19-065).

The Board definitively ruled that a manufacturer engaged in an R&D operation does not need to manufacture items for sale to qualify for the M&E exemption. Consequently, if a robotics firm in Kent purchases a multi-million-dollar CNC mill solely to fabricate experimental prototypes for internal stress testing, that equipment is fully exempt from Washington’s retail sales tax. The DOR issued a Special Notice accepting the Board’s ruling and declining to appeal, creating massive, permanent tax savings for pure-play R&D firms and opening a window for retroactive refund claims.

Targeted Aerospace Industry Tax Incentives

Recognizing the existential economic importance of the aerospace cluster established in Kent and the broader Puget Sound region, Washington provides several highly specialized, targeted incentives:

• B&O Credit for Preproduction Development Expenditures: Aerospace manufacturers, Federal Aviation Administration (FAR) Part 145 repair stations, and aerospace non-manufacturers (such as dedicated engineering firms) are eligible to claim a B&O tax credit equal to 1.5% of qualified preproduction development expenditures. These expenditures include wages, benefits, supplies, and computer expenses used in the research, design, and engineering of commercial airplanes or their component parts. To claim this credit, the research must be physically performed within Washington State, and taxpayers are required to electronically file an Aerospace Credit Affidavit alongside a rigorous Annual Tax Performance Report.
• Preferential Aerospace B&O Rates: Manufacturers of commercial airplanes and aerospace tooling enjoy a permanently reduced B&O tax rate of 0.484%. Furthermore, aerospace non-manufacturers engaged in product development for third parties are subject to a preferential rate of 0.9% (an apportionable activity, authorized until 2040).

Statewide B&O Rate Increases and Food Processing Exemptions

While aerospace receives specialized treatment, general manufacturing operations in Kent must navigate a shifting B&O tax landscape. Recent legislation passed by the Washington legislature mandates that effective January 1, 2027, the standard B&O tax rate for the general manufacturing, retailing, and wholesaling classifications—which currently sit at either 0.471% or 0.484%—will permanently increase to 0.5%. Furthermore, beginning in 2026, a 0.5% B&O tax surcharge will be imposed on large taxpayers generating over $250 million in annual gross receipts, though certain specific manufacturing classes are explicitly exempt from this surcharge.

Conversely, the state fiercely protects its agricultural and food processing heritage through deeply discounted B&O rates. Under RCW 82.04.260, manufacturers engaged in splitting dried peas, manufacturing flour, or slaughtering, breaking, and processing perishable meat products (such as the massive beef jerky operations in Kent) are subject to a B&O tax rate of just 0.138%—a fraction of the general manufacturing burden.

Municipal Taxation: City of Kent B&O Taxes

Beyond the federal and state layers, businesses must comply with municipal taxation. Any city or town in Washington may levy a local B&O tax on businesses operating within its jurisdiction. The City of Kent actively levies a gross receipts tax, utilizing the revenues to fund local infrastructure and municipal services.

In response to acute budgetary constraints—specifically the need to fund public safety initiatives and address severe staffing shortages within the Kent Police Department, where the officer-to-sergeant ratio had become unsustainable—the Kent City Council adopted Ordinance No. 4503 in late 2024. Effective January 1, 2025, the local gross receipts tax rate for Manufacturing and Wholesaling was increased to 0.00125 (0.125%), while Retailing remained at 0.001 (0.1%). Furthermore, the ordinance implemented an upper threshold to the taxable gross receipts maximum cap, which will be indexed to the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W) beginning in 2026.

Table: City of Kent Local B&O and Square Footage Tax Rates.

Specific Industry Case Studies in Kent, Washington

The preceding legal frameworks are highly abstract until applied to the physical reality of the factory floor. The following five case studies dissect distinct, historically rooted industries operating within Kent, detailing the precise technological uncertainties they face, the engineering methodologies they employ, and the mechanisms by which they qualify for both the United States federal Section 41 credit and Washington State tax incentives.

Case Study: Aerospace and Space Technology Manufacturing

Historical Context and Development in Kent: Building upon the monumental legacy of the Boeing Aerospace Center and the manufacturing of the Apollo Lunar Rovers in the 1970s, Kent has successfully reinvented itself as a premier hub for “New Space” commercial enterprises. The clustering of highly specialized metallurgical talent and the availability of massive, heavily powered industrial facilities attracted Blue Origin, which established its headquarters and vast R&D facilities in Kent in 2000. More recently, Stoke Space revitalized Space Launch Complex 14 and secured $860 million in Series D funding to scale the manufacturing of its fully reusable Nova launch vehicle, operating heavily out of the Kent Valley. The region’s aerospace sector now accounts for a staggering 35% of Washington State’s total aerospace manufacturing economic impact.

Technological Uncertainties & R&D Activities: The global transition toward next-generation propulsion systems and sustainable aviation requires solving unprecedented engineering hurdles. A primary technological uncertainty currently dominating the sector is the onboard storage of cryogenic fuels, specifically liquid hydrogen, which must be maintained at a temperature of -253°C. Standard metallic storage tanks are excessively heavy, drastically reducing optimal orbital payload capacities. Consequently, aerospace firms in Kent are engaging in rigorous R&D to develop lightweight, perfectly insulated composite cryogenic tanks.

The process of experimentation mandated by IRC Section 41 involves utilizing advanced finite element analysis (FEA) software to computationally simulate thermal contraction and expansion across varied geometries. Engineers are developing novel automated fiber placement (AFP) techniques, programming robotic arms to weave carbon composites in specific matrices that resist micro-fissuring. They must iterate on proprietary epoxy resin formulas to prevent cryogenic micro-cracking during the extreme thermal cycling experienced between launch and atmospheric reentry. Furthermore, companies like Stoke Space, mandated to create a 100% rapidly reusable medium-lift vehicle, conduct continuous iterative burst testing and thermal fluid dynamic modeling of engine metallurgy and active cooling systems.

Case Study: Advanced Metal Fabrication and Waterjet Machining

Historical Context and Development in Kent: As the aerospace sector expanded exponentially in the mid-20th century, it necessitated a localized, highly sophisticated metal fabrication supply chain capable of manipulating exotic alloys—such as titanium and Inconel—with zero margin for error. Kent became the logical home for precision fabricators like Exotic Metals Forming Company and advanced machine tool developers like OMAX Corporation, a global pioneer in abrasive waterjet technology. The city’s relative lack of traffic congestion compared to downtown Seattle, combined with business-friendly, fast-track permitting processes (often delivering commercial permits in under two weeks), solidified it as the ideal industrial base for heavy metalworking.

Technological Uncertainties & R&D Activities: Modern defense and aerospace components increasingly rely on advanced composites, ballistic materials, and super alloys that cannot be machined using traditional thermal methods, such as laser or plasma cutting. Thermal methods inevitably introduce a Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) into the material, which weakens the part, causes microcracking, and alters the material’s carefully engineered metallurgical properties.

To overcome this fundamental limitation, companies like OMAX conduct exhaustive R&D into abrasive waterjet cutting, a cold-cutting process that generates zero HAZ. The current technological uncertainty lies in “meso-micro machining”—the ability to consistently cut features smaller than 100 microns (0.004 inches) in delicate, brittle materials like engineered glass laminates or silicon wafers without inducing edge taper, frosting, or catastrophic piercing damage. The process of experimentation requires mechanical engineers to evaluate the kinetic properties of different proprietary abrasive garnet mesh sizes, iteratively redesign the fluid dynamics of mixing tube geometries down to 0.010-inch diameters, and develop complex software models to analyze and mitigate the kinetic energy transfer that causes chipping during the initial piercing phase.

Case Study: Food Processing and Clean-Label Meat Snacks

Historical Context and Development in Kent: Kent’s deep agricultural history naturally evolved into a robust, diversified food processing sector. The valley boasts a massive production base, ranging from large-scale coffee roasting to expansive dairy and meat operations. Most notably, the Oberto Sausage Company, a family-owned business established over a century ago, operates its primary manufacturing facility and R&D laboratory in Kent. Oberto has leveraged the region’s strong supply chain logistics to become a national leader in beef jerky, pepperoni, and private-label snack sausage production.

Technological Uncertainties & R&D Activities: Driven by shifting consumer demands for “clean label,” “natural,” and “organic” foods, meat processors face a severe scientific challenge: preserving perishable meats without the direct addition of synthetic chemical preservatives like sodium nitrate or nitrite. Nitrites perform vital chemical functions; they interact with the muscle pigment myoglobin to create the classic red color of cured meat, they act as powerful antioxidants to delay oxidative rancidity, and most critically, they prevent the growth of lethal pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum.

The technological uncertainty is distinctly biochemical: how to achieve the exact functional, textural, and safety properties of traditional chemical curing using only natural alternatives. The process of experimentation involves food scientists testing vegetable-based ingredients (such as celery juice powder) that possess naturally high nitrate contents, and pairing them with specific nitrate-reducing microbial starter cultures.

Researchers in Kent must conduct iterative, highly controlled microbiological “challenge tests.” This involves intentionally inoculating prototype batches of jerky with surrogate strains of Listeria innocua and Salmonella enterica to monitor bacterial growth rates under various moisture levels, pH balances, and glucose parameters. Furthermore, they must systematically optimize the thermodynamic drying cycles in commercial smokehouses to ensure the biological starter cultures activate properly without ruining the product’s textural gumminess and hardness, while continuously monitoring Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values to measure lipid oxidation.

Case Study: Automated Logistics and AI-Driven Warehouse Robotics

Historical Context and Development in Kent: Due to its expansive, flat terrain resulting from the valley’s geological history, the elimination of flood risk post-1960, and its immediate proximity to the Ports of Seattle and Tacoma, Kent evolved into one of the most critical warehouse and distribution hubs on the West Coast. The city sits squarely at the intersection of major interstates (I-5, I-405, SR-167), facilitating seamless connectivity to regional markets. Major global retailers, including Amazon, operate massive fulfillment centers here, necessitating cutting-edge internal logistics and leading to the localization of third-party logistics (3PL) technology developers.

Technological Uncertainties & R&D Activities: With the exponential growth of e-commerce, changing US trade policies, and a chronically tight industrial labor market, 3PLs and warehouse operators are shifting away from manual labor toward highly complex, AI-driven automation. The primary technological uncertainty does not simply lie in building a robot, but in the seamless, real-time integration of disparate hardware fleets and legacy software systems.

Software engineers and robotics firms in Kent are developing sophisticated Warehouse Execution Systems (WES) powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI). The process of experimentation involves programming AI algorithms to handle complex mathematical “slotting optimization”—predicting SKU velocity patterns and seasonal variability to automatically reorganize pick faces before congestion occurs. Furthermore, engineers must develop “task sequencing” algorithms capable of dynamically routing Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) through narrow warehouse aisles while accounting for human worker locations, equipment constraints, and strict dock deadlines. A massive technical hurdle involves iterating on API integrations, resolving friction points regarding event granularity, and standardizing data timestamps to ensure the new AI-driven WES correctly synchronizes with legacy Warehouse Management Systems (WMS) without causing catastrophic task duplication or system crashes.

Case Study: Metal Packaging and Container Manufacturing

Historical Context and Development in Kent: The intense concentration of food and beverage processing in the Puget Sound region requires vast amounts of localized packaging manufacturing to remain economically viable. The Carnation Company originally established an in-house can manufacturing operation in Kent in 1899 to support its condensed milk business. Through decades of technological advancement and corporate mergers, this infrastructure ultimately became part of Silgan Containers, which currently operates as the largest provider of metal food packaging in the United States. Today, Kent remains a vital center for high-volume packaging R&D, supporting both massive regional agricultural outputs and local beverage giants.

Technological Uncertainties & R&D Activities: The packaging manufacturing industry faces immense, simultaneous pressure to increase environmental sustainability, drastically reduce raw material input costs in the face of fluctuating steel and aluminum tariffs, and enhance the shelf life of consumer goods. A continuous, highly technical area of R&D is the “lightweighting” or “thin-walling” of aluminum and steel cans. This involves reducing the gauge (thickness) of the metal by microscopic fractions of an inch to save thousands of tons of material annually, without compromising the extreme structural integrity required for high-speed filling, vertical warehouse stacking, and thermal pasteurization processes.

The process of experimentation relies heavily on metallurgical science and advanced mechanical engineering. Engineers utilize finite element analysis to computationally model stress points along the welded side seams and the complex geometry of the Drawn and Ironed (D&I) base of the can. They systematically iterate on various alloy tempers and specialized internal polymer coatings designed to prevent highly acidic foods from chemically reacting with the metal casing. Physical testing involves placing prototypes in vacuum chambers to test implosion resistance, applying massive axial load crush tests to verify stacking strength, and conducting drop testing to empirically validate the computational models. Furthermore, as line speeds increase, manufacturing engineers must design highly automated machine vision systems utilizing AI to detect microscopic fractures or coating defects in the cans on the production line, constantly iterating on lighting parameters and imaging algorithms to eliminate false positive rejection rates.

Strategic Final Thoughts and Future Outlook

The industrial landscape of the Kent Valley represents a microcosm of American manufacturing ingenuity, born from its unique geographical advantages and forged through a century of continuous historical development. From the precision cutting of aerospace super-alloys and the biochemical preservation of organic foods, to the algorithmic orchestration of warehouse robotics and the metallurgical lightweighting of consumer packaging, companies in Kent are fundamentally pushing the boundaries of applied science and engineering.

To mitigate the immense financial risks inherent in these technological endeavors, it is an absolute commercial imperative that these corporations meticulously map their developmental activities to the strict legal parameters of IRC Section 41 and the newly restored IRC Section 174A. By rigorously documenting specific technological uncertainties at the exact outset of projects—as mandated by recent, highly restrictive Tax Court rulings such as Phoenix Design Group—and appropriately identifying qualifying wages, consumable supplies, and contract research expenses, Kent businesses can generate transformative federal tax credits.

Concurrently, corporate tax departments must maintain aggressive vigilance regarding Washington State’s shifting tax landscape. By leveraging highly targeted aerospace preproduction B&O credits, navigating the impending 2026/2027 general B&O rate increases, and fully exploiting the newly clarified M&E sales tax exemptions under the binding Terrapower doctrine, manufacturers can optimize their capital expenditures. The strategic synthesis of these federal and state tax incentives ensures that the Kent Valley will remain a premier, globally competitive destination for advanced manufacturing and intensive research and development well into the next century.

The information in this study is current as of the date of publication, and is provided for information purposes only. Although we do our absolute best in our attempts to avoid errors, we cannot guarantee that errors are not present in this study. Please contact a Swanson Reed member of staff, or seek independent legal advice to further understand how this information applies to your circumstances.